LPO+3450+-+Leadership+Theory+and+Behavior

**Class Summaries**

__Weekend 1 -- Overall Theme__

Executive Summary:
 * 1) Theme 1
 * 2) Theme 2
 * 3) Theme 3

__Weekend 2 -- Overall Theme__

Executive Summary:
 * 1) Theme 1
 * 2) Theme 2
 * 3) Theme 3

__Weekend 3 -- Overall Theme__

Executive Summary:
 * 1) Theme 1
 * 2) Theme 2
 * 3) Theme 3

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 1.3em;">**Course Readings**
<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__Weekend 1__

**<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Introduction to the Nature of Leadership" (Yukl): Quinton Walker **

 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Yukl's Introduction (Chapter 1): Chapter is introductory in nature. Essentially sets the stage for the ways we look at leadership. Can look to leadership as specialized roles vs. shared influences. Similarly, says that there are 5 main areas of empirical research based upon a scholar's own interest. (Will often reinforce their findings because of the artificial boundaries placed around leadership research). Also looks at ways which we can conceptualize leadership and other angles / perspectives to adopt when thinking about leadership. Questions that remain or raised: Notion of ethics and how leadership may be negated by self-interest (or not). Other issues: Mintzberg and leadership as a management principle. Kotter says leadership is strategic and the management is tactical -- one can interfere with the other given that strategy can be unsettling / innovative / unpredictable while management strives to attain stability
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Empirical Leadership
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Trait based leadership: Assumes that people are natural leaders -- looks to isolate characteristics
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Behavior based leadership: Looks for how job is divided according to function and if there are recurring patterns of behavior
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Situational: Looks for commonalities across groups and organizations. Adaptability of traits based upon the environment one finds themselves in
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Power-influence: How a leader will exert influence on the follower (and the associated feelings of the follower about the leader)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Integrative: Combines 2 of the 4
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Other areas which emerge for leadership: Thinking about (1) the leader and follower interaction, (2) descriptive vs. prescriptive leadership (how it is done vs. how it should be done to be optimally), and (3) universal imperatives for leadership vs. contingency theories (situational)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Conceptualization of Leadership
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Intrapersonal leadership: leadership of self as way of measuring leadership (no ability to look at influence)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Dyadic: isolating leadership to a specific leader-follower relationship (closed system, largely)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Group: A series of dyadic relationships. Starts getting to issues of effectiveness and outcomes
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Organizational: Macrolevel analysis of leadership
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Leadership Effectiveness: Can be objective (organizational performance metrics) or subjective (soft things -- culturally-based, feelings, development of others, group decision making). Also has a temporal element (delayed effects of leadership)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Leadership as some process in which something is exerted over another to guide, structure, facilitate activities.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"The Paradoxes of Leadership" (Barach and Eckhardt): Anna Thomas
<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">** Intro/Common Paradoxes: **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leadership is paradoxical: use feeling, logic gets tossed; but need both
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Challenge is power is to give it away to get it
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Clear P.O.V./partisan stand on issues, then seen as believable than someone who takes no stand

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">** Questions vs. Answers **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">To grow in leadership, focus on questions rather than answers.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Answers emerge from experience, but answers will even then still be contextual.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">** Discussion of various paradoxes in leadership: **

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">I. Paradox of Parenting: Autonomy vs. Dependence
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Part of superior/subordinate relationship
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Example of entrepreneur making a bad manager because he doesn’t give orders, he negotiates ; has “adult” relationships, makes legal transactions, does not have subordinates
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Good manager can keep adults in childlike relationship with manager
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Good manager assess what areas are most important for subordinates to have autonomy and then re-assess at given intervals

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">II. Paradox of Delegation: Empowering Others vs. Power to Command
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Give power to get it. Set conditions/goals “paint box” so subordinates don’t feel limits of their autonomy, but managers have assured their position in power by doing this
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">For delegation to work: managers must trust subordinate’s goals, values, and competencies

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">III. Paradox of the Source of Authority: Titular, Formal Authority vs. That Granted by the Governed
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Legitimate, “formal”, “positional” power granted by title

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">i. Granted authority but may not be able to use it

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">IX. Degree to which power can be exercised depends on:

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">i. Power any boss has. Capacities to: reward, sanction, coerce


 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Reward power: extent to which manager can give rewards
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Coercive power: extent to which manager can deny rewards, administer punishment
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Legitimate power: extent to which manager can use beliefs of subordinates about boss’s “right to command”
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Expert power: extent to which manager can control behavior through possession of knowledge
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Referent power: extent to which manager can control another’s behavior because of wanting to identify the power source
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">General conclusion that power rests with governed

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">V. Paradox of the Manager and Managee: All Bosses and Leaders Report to Someone
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leaders must pay attn to their bosses and subordinates to stay in power

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">VI. Paradox of Norms: Archetype of Group Norms and Values vs. Agent for Changing Them
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leaders must pay attn to the culture of their group
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">At same time, they are in a position to create major changes
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leader is “expert in the promotion and protection of values”
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leader must conform to key values, prove self to group, to create change; balance new ideas with supporting the values/culture of the group

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">VII. Paradox of Power: Use It or Lose It vs. Abuse It and Lose It
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leaders must demonstrate they are strong and confident and deserve power; absolute authority
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Gross abuse of power risks the loss of it

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">VIII. Paradox of Kinship: Being “One-of-Us” vs. Appearing Larger Than Life
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Build symbolic personal relationships, kinship with followers use “we” vs. “I”

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">i. Evidence of a leader’s humanity to build sense of kinship <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">2. Build mystery around self via symbolic acts, build entourage around leader

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">IX. Paradox of Information: Share to get Loyalty vs. Keep the Power of Knowledge
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Sharing info helps employees buy in to shared goals, inc sense of empowerment, advantages in morale
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">But Knowledge is power. Leaders revered for fountain of knowledge, connections

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">X. Paradox of Followership: Leadership Supplied by Followers
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">When followers suggest leader behaviors that then exercises their leadership
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leadership emerges from within, empowerment through inspiration, encouragement

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">XI. Paradox of Privilege: Role vs. Person
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Ability to lead derived from title/position or personal qualities
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leaders should reject personalizing their power by giving power to the role
 * 3) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 115%;">Leadership is a skill involving judgment and wisdom, which is distinct from knowledge.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Leadership and Management" (Rost): [Kent's Notes]
<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Rost's **Main Goal**: Wants to separate leadership and management as concepts. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Some **previous attempts** at this distinction: <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Selznick: routine versus critical decisions <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Jacobs: something about influence—versus power and authority <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Katz and Kahn: leadership is influence; management is use of authority <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Graham: distinction rests on the degree of choice <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Zaleznic: personality differences between a leader and manager <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Burns doesn’t make an explicit distinction, but transactional might be management and transformational might be leadership? Supervision versus leadership. Burns disagrees. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Dubin: leadership is rare, management more common <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Tucker: routine directions versus direction at times of choice, change, and decision <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Bennis: “Managers are people who do things right; leaders are people who do the right thing” (100) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Theme of all these previous attempts: leadership are those management processes that produce excellent outcomes <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">**Evaluation of above attempts**: <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">These attempts provide only a weak distinction. Sometimes they focus on the personality of leaders, not on the process of leadership. Leadership is not equal to the leader. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;"> Often the authors revert to the industrial paradigm that equates leadership with good management (management beyond expectations). Example of Wilpert; Example of Center for Creative Leadership workshop <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Research community mistakenly accepts that leader-manager & leadership-management are all the same things. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Why make this mistake? Because they choose to observe managers to discern leadership; and they hope to make managers feel better. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">What to do given that researchers don’t appear to make a distinction? <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1in;">Hosking and Morley: leaders are those who consistently contribute to the leadership process and come to be seen as doing so by other participants. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1in;">Leadership: the process by which social order is constructed or changed <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">** Denigrating Management to Enoble Leadership ** <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Rost believes: Management is not a bad thing: people actually like good management. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Rost rejects previous attempts because they believe: <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Management is no good unless infused with leadership. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Management is bad; leadership is good. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;"> Mnagement is a necessary but inadequate process; leadership is needed at all times M <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Management is okay; but leadership makes the world go round <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Management is what got the US into trouble; Leadership will get us out <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">These attempts assume that management is bad and leadership is good. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">These attempts assume that leadership is always effective and helpful. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">These attempts require every manager to be a leader—rendering the concepts redundant. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">** Defining Management & Leadership ** <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Leadership defined: “an influence relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes” (108). <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Management is: “an authority relationship between at least one manager and one subordinate who coordinate their activities to procude and sell particular goods and/or services.” (108). <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Authority relationship <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Contracted relationship <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Example of stoplight <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Manager and subordinate <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Positions on organizational chart <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Examples of student-teachers <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Coordination of activities (to achieve their goal) <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Produce and sell goods and/or services <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Leadership and Management <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1in;">First, determine if management is what’s happening; then one can determine effectiveness. Same is true for leadership. Essential nature of the phenomena are neutral to evaluative criteria. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1in;">That’s why saying leadership is good management makes a mess of the ideas.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">**Distinguishing between leadership and management**. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Influence versus authority <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">No coercion in influence; mutli-directional in leadership. <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Leaders and followers versus managers and subordinates <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1.5in;">Managers hold positions of authority; but that’s not the same as being a leader <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Intend real changes versus produce and sell goods or services <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 1.5in;">Joint force between leader-follower to change something “really change” “real change” <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px; margin-left: 0.5in;">Intended changes reflect mutual purposes versus coordinated activities <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 15px;">Not just independent goals mutually agreed on, but shared goals.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"The Ambiguity of Leadership" (Pfeffer): Kimberly Martin
Three problems with emphasis on leadership as a concept:


 * Ambiguity in definition and measurement
 * Whether leadership has discernable effects on organizational outcomes
 * The selection process in succession to leadership positions

The ambiguity of the concept:


 * For leadership to be a distinct concept, it must be distinguishable from other social influence phenomena
 * Hollander, Julian, Bavelas, and Caalder: it is not distinguishable
 * Kochan, Schmidt, and DeCotiis: leadership is different because the right to influence is voluntarily conferred --congruence of objectives between leader and the led
 * 2 tasks for groups: maintenance of group and the group's task or activity (consideration and initiating structure)
 * Day and Hamblin analyzed using closeness and punitiveness of supervision
 * Fielder's least preferred coworker scale
 * Factor analysis of leadership is imprecise because it is based on researcher's preferences (subjective)
 * Sales developed an authoritarian-democratic typology of leadership
 * Korman found inconsistent results on consideration/initiating structure; Kerr and Schriesheim had more consistent results with their study of the same typology
 * Better results were obtained in leadership research when taking subordinate personalities and situational characteristics into account

The effect of leaders:


 * Merit or ability may not account for much variation in hiring and advancement of organizational personnel
 * Personality, background info, test scores and grades have little effect on advancement to leadership positions
 * Family background/social status and access to elite universities have influence on leadership positions
 * Efforts to improve leadership skills may be irrelevant

The attribution of leadership


 * Lieberson and O'Connor: organizational outcomes are attributed to an individual (the leader)
 * Whether or not leader's behavior actually influence performance or effectiveness, it is important because people believe it does
 * Leaders become symbols
 * People's beliefs about the effect of leadership help them follow the leader
 * The leader reinforces the attribution by separating himself/herself from failures and associating self with successes

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">__Weekend 2__

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Interpersonal Competence and Leadership" (Bass):
(quick highlights from Nate: feel free to replace or modify if you have taken more sufficient notes)


 * Interpersonal Competence factors:**
 * “Empathy, insight, heightened awareness, the ability to give and receive feedback.”
 * “Depend on trust and shared decision making rather than power”
 * “…Influential not dictatorial, good in dealing with people and in delegating, and trustworthy and credible rather than overly political. They promote group decisions, not to keep their subordinates happy but to take full advantage of their subordinate’s knowledge and to increase their subordinates’ commitments to the decisions.”
 * “Active soliciting of new ideas and feedback from others.”
 * “Explicitness in giving instructions and frequency of communication about job-related matters” relating to “expectations of success and reward in their jobs”
 * Provides pithy reminders about “norms, values, expectations, rules, requirements, and rationality of an organization’s culture.”
 * Highly informative and trustworthy style, Individual relationships sought (quick notes), clear verbal and nonverbal communication, caring and considerate, each employee has equal opportunities, can deal with conflict because is at peace with himself, aware of subordinates strengths and weaknesses
 * "Able to respond adequately to changing situations”

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Managerial Intelligence: Why IQ isn't Enough" (Sternbergh):
(quick highlights from Nate: feel free to replace or modify if you have taken more sufficient notes)
 * Model I test- measures IQ
 * Model II- practical and creative abilities in addition to the memory-analytical abilities.
 * “If we wish to understand intelligence as it applies in the real world of management, it is useful to think beyond the narrow and unitary index such as IQ, and to think in terms of broader abilities that are directly relevant in a management context.”
 * We need to broaden our idea of intelligence by incorporating “practical and creative abilities in addition to the memory-analytical abilities.”
 * “one way of determining whether a test truly measures intelligence is to assess whether the test predicts some form of behavior that is deemed to require intelligence.”
 * Model I IQ tests do not assess creativity or the ability to correctly address a problem which are arguably crucial to leadership (such as Coke’s big failure and their quick decision to keep coke but also bring back coca cola as //classic//).
 * “Each company is different- with its own competitive context, and so on, The result is that someone who succeeds in one environment may not succeed particularly well in another.”
 * “practical intelligence- or common sense”
 * “Creative intelligence”
 * “tacit knowledge” the strongest indicator of managerial performance- “action oriented knowledge, acquired without direct help from others, that allows individuals to achieve goals they personally value (procedural in nature, relevant to the attainment of goals people value, acquired with little help from others.”
 * “Successfully intelligent people are those who have the dynamic abilities to (a) figure out their strengths, (b) figure out their weaknesses, (c) capitalize on their strengths, (d) compensate for or repair their weaknesses.”

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"What Makes a Leader" (Goleman): Quinton Walker

 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Goleman (Emotional Intelligence): In this article, Goleman juxtaposes Emotional Intelligence (EQ) with Intelligence Quotient . He affirms that IQ is merely a threshold / gateway measure (rather than the ultimate decider) and that EQ matters significantly (particularly at the top of the organizational chart in the most senior positions). Goleman lays out 5 central areas to consider when thinking about emotional intelligence. Uses McLellan (international fast food example about competency building (subjective -- identify and look for behaviors of top performers / objective -- benchmark those people with organizational metrics). Competency models challenge what others have said about leadership in terms of identifying behaviors in a vacuum/sterile setting
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Self-Awareness: How well do I know myself? My strengths / limitations / weaknesses
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Have a good idea about directionality and organizational progress
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Self-Control: How well can I both police and control my own impulses and behaviors?
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Comfortable with ambiguity
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Select words carefully (monitor and scan the environment)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Motivation: The most commonly-respected (in the for-profit sector) element of emotional intelligence. Drive / solutions-oriented
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Goleman says that intrinsic motivation matters and that extrinsic motivation is to be discounted (power for power's sake)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Goals / Performance Metric Driven
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Want to keep score / want to know where they stand / will drive performance through modeling
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Empathy: The ability to relate with others' needs / desires / motivations / reasons for behaviors
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Mentoring / Developing / Coaching -- All-based on empathy (helps with productivity and increased retention and satisfaction)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tend to be comfortable managing teams, given competing motivations / needs / desires of team members
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social Skill: This can be considered a combination of the 4 prior elements. Recognizes that nothing great can be accomplished alone
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Seeks to build rapport and commonality with others
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Looks for ways to connect people
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Recognizes the importance of networks and cultivates them
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">People exercising social skill may not look busy (building a network for future purposes)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emotional Intelligence can be developed -- So long as training and development activate the limbic system (training needs to engage people in motivation, extended practice, and feedback loops); not an instantaneous development (p.5 insert)
 * <span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif; font-size: 12pt;">Outstanding Question: Goleman contends that in the for-profit/corporate environment that emotional intelligence is undervalued/considered a nice to have. In a realm in which one of our core functions is developing others, does this hold true? What are the implications of this for us as educational leaders? (Particularly as Higher Ed becomes more business-oriented in some regards)?

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Contingency Theories on Effective Leadership" (Yukl): Quinton Walker
===
 * Yukl: Contingency Theories of Leadership. In this chapter, Yukl points to 5 theories which attempt to explain leadership as a more complicated interplay of variables (task, situational, organizational, and leader-specific traits and behaviors). All 5 theories are lacking in terms of research, given the complicated task of isolating variables to empirically research. Ultimately, the article gives 7 takeaways for leadership that we can utitlize as a result of the contingency theories discussed.
 * Leadership takeaways that we can incorporate into practice.
 * Use more planning for a long, complex task
 * Consult more with people who have relevant knowledge (and are bought-in) to the situation
 * Provide more direction to people with interdependent roles (collaboration works when people are on the same page)
 * Monitor a critical task or unreliable person more closely (supportively, ask open-ended questions, non-punitive)
 * Provide more coaching to an inexperienced subordinate
 * Be more supportive to someone with a stressful task/job -- stress inhibits performance / intelligence in the moment
 * Provide more direction and briefings when there is a crisis/high stress situation
 * Act with confidence and knowledge
 * Systematically assess situation
 * Determine a course of action for organization and its people
 * Direct the work of those around you (subordinates)
 * Inform subordinates and other parties involved (create a narrative which is relevant, realistic, and informative) to minimize anxiety and stress
 * Models: All 5 models are based on the situation modification variables (elements of a situation / environment that either enhance or dampen a leader's attributes/traits/behaviors
 * House's Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: The motivational function of the leader consists of increasing personal payoffs to subordinates for work-goal attainment and to make those paths to payoff easier. Premised on expectancy theory (expectants (what they'll produce) and valences (quality of what they produce))
 * Supportive Leadership
 * Directive Leadership
 * Participative Leadership
 * Achievement-Oriented Leadership
 * Kerr and Jermier's Leadership Substitute Theory aims to measure whether subordinate characteristics (experience, professionalism, attitudes), task characteristics (structure, feedback loops), and organizational characteristics (cohesion, power, formalization, team dispersion) can either be substitutes or neutralizers of leadership
 * substitutes: Characteristics of the task, subordinate, or organization that make leader behavior unnecessary and redundant. Raises the question of a need for a leader at all?
 * Neutralizers: Characteristics of the task, subordinate, or organization that nullify a leader's effectiveness or prevent a leader from acting in a certain way
 * Fiedler's Least Preferred Coworker Contingency Model: Based upon octants (leader-member relations, task-structure, and position-power) -- Says that those with LPC scores that are high either value relationships more or are motivated to create relationships) and those with low LPC scores have a stronger task-orientation
 * Yukl's Multiple Linkage Model looks at 4 variables around a group's effectiveness. (Importantly, moves away from dyads to group interaction). Chiefly looks at intervening variables (task commitment, role clarity, organization of work, cooperation and mutual trust, resources and support, and external coordination) and how the manager's behaviors asesses and modifies each, based upon her observations. Think about levers that can be pulled.
 * Raises important questions about proactive vs. reactive leadership and direct but delayed vs. indirect impacts and effects of a leader.
 * Also suggests that sometimes a leader's best course of action over the long term is to alter the situation and not the intervening variables per se
 * Fiedler's Cognitive Resource Theory of Leadership -- what does a leader's intelligence have to do with their leadership effectiveness? Looks at a leader's traits (intelligence and experience), leader behavior (directive leadership) and the leader's situation (interpersonal stress and nature of group's task). Suggests that leader effectiveness is predicted by intelligence in low-stress situations but by experience in high-stress situations
 * Do more experienced leaders have a better coping network? Or do they have a higher tolerance for stress?
 * CONNECTION: Novice and Expert work -- Expert (Experienced leaders) and the way they operate. New leaders treat problems in isolation and count on past experiences to guide them. Experienced leaders look for patterns to guide them and can bring to bear experience during stressful situations.

===

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Charismatic and Transformational Leadership" (Yukl):
(quick highlights from Nate: feel free to replace or modify if you have taken more sufficient notes)


 * Introducing terms**
 * Charisma- a form of influence based off of the followers perception of the leaders extraordinary qualities. Often occurs when there is a crisis and the leader has a radical solution that attracts the followers- Weber
 * Transformational Leadership-“ appeals to the moral values of followers in attempt to raise their consciousness about ethical issues and to mobilize their energy and energy to reform institutions.” (Burns’ concept)
 * Transacting leadership- “motivates followers by appealing to their self interest."


 * Facets to CL**
 * Charismatic leadership (CL) likely has a vision that is “highly discrepant from the status quo.”
 * CL- uses “visioning and persuasive appeals” rather than using “authority or a participative decision process.” And followers becoming emotionally involved in the process and have loyalty to the organization.
 * If there is not a crisis, the CL can create “dissatisfaction with current conditions”. But the vision has to be “congruent with existing follower values and identities.”
 * CL- articulates an appealing vision/ use strong forms of communication/ takes personal risks and sacrifices to attain the vision/ communicates high vision/ expresses confidence in followers/ role modeling of behavior consistent with the vision/ manages the follower’s impression of his leadership/ builds group identification/ empowers followers/ uses symbols, logos, rituals, ceremonies to influence
 * CL can have special impact on adolescents with low self esteem (Mao, Charles Taylor, Chavez…).
 * Since CL is so dependent on personal identification with the leader, when he departs, there is likely t o be a succession crisis.
 * CL potentially has fear of potential rivals and can keep followers weak and dependent on him (Stalin, Mao, Castro)
 * CL stresses the internalization of values (similar to transformational leadership stress on morals).
 * CL can take more risky decisions and believe his/her judgment is infallible (followers are so in awe or afraid that they don’t make challenging criticisms or suggestions- fear of alienation).
 * Positive effect of CL- creates an achievement oriented culture.
 * Research says that a CL is not necessary to create positive change in an organization.


 * Facets to TL**
 * Transformational Leadership- TL- followers feel trust/loyalty and are willing to do more than they would normally do. They are motivated by being clear on the importance of outcomes/ to put the interest of the team above their own interests/ by making them aware of their higher order needs (moral)- (Bass)
 * Bass says TL is distinct from transactional leadership, but it can include parts of it- they are not mutually exclusive.
 * Followers appreciate the vision of the leader and the “role clarity, job satisfaction, perceived leader intellectual stimulation, and both the quality and quantity of the follower performance.”
 * Bennis and Nanus research- effective leaders were not larger than life orators. “The leaders all had a vision of a desirably and possible future for their organization; it was sometimes just a vague dream, and at other times it was as concrete as a written mission statement, The leaders demonstrated commitment to the vision by their decisions and behavior. Follower commitment to the vision depended on their trust in the leader, which was more likely when the leader’s statements and actions were consistent.”
 * Actions by TL- mission statement was created and often referred to in the change process/ strategic vision was developed with aid of personnel/ people in key positions were replaced by more competent and dynamic workers who would support the change/ performance objectives and action plans were created for subordinates and progress was monitored/ task forces were created among personnel to make recommendations with budget cuts/ staff was trained in how to run public meetings
 * 259- Roberts example of superintendent who shoots straight with the people and makes it a point of trust so they can move forward (calculated vulnerability)- 260- interesting example of how a person can excel in one position and not in another.

Summary of TL keys:
 * 1) Articulate a clear and appealing vision
 * 2) Explain how the vision can be attained
 * 3) Act confidently and optimistically
 * 4) Express confidence in followers
 * 5) Use dramatic and symbolic actions to emphasize key values
 * 6) Lead by example (interact daily with subordinates)
 * 7) Empower people to achieve the vision

//CL- create dependence on the leader vs TL- inspire, develop, and empower followers//

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Transformational Leadership: Democratic or Despotic" (Alix):
===

===

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">"Personality, Culture, and Organization" (Kets de Vrie): Lori Townsend
Kets De Vries and Miller explore parallels between dysfunctional top executives and dysfunctional organizations by neurotic styles
 * Styles-ways of thinking, perceiving, experiencing emotion, modes of subjective experience, and modes of activity
 * Same person may possess elements of many styles (normal), but extreme manifestations of any one style in top executives impair function of organizations
 * Consequence-top executives create shared fantasies that permeate all levels and influence organizational culture

General Hypotheses:
 * 1) The more centralized the organization, and more powerful the CEO, the more impact of leader's neurotic style on culture, strategy and structure
 * 2) The more similar the personalities of top executives, the purer the organizational culture, the more closely they adhere to the 'Five Constellations' of dysfunction
 * 3) The purer the personality type of the CEO, the more it will be reflected in organizational culture, structure and strategy
 * 4) Healthy firms will have a healthy mix of personality types and will not be dysfunctional

Categorized into 'Five Constellations' of fantasy:

Fantasy-__Persecution__ (Persecutory Preoccupation)-Paranoid Constellation Fantasy-__Helplessness__ (and Hopelessness)-Depressive Constellation Fantasy-__Grandiosity__ (Need for Grandiosity)-Dramatic Constellation Fantasy-__Control__ (The Need for Control)-Compulsive Constellation Fantasy-__Detachment__ (The Need for Detachment)-The Schizoid Constellation
 * Neurotic Style-suspicious
 * Culture-paranoid
 * Organizations-paranoid
 * Examples-suspicious, mistrust, search and identification of enemies, poor morale, fight/flight attitudes, uniform/distorted perceptions, use of information as a power resource, centralized power for decision making, overt aggression, hypersensitivity, hyperalertness, guardedness, organization wastes valuable time and energy
 * Neurotic Style-depressive, avoidant, dependent
 * Culture-avoidant
 * Organization-depressive
 * Examples-lack self confidence and initiative, routine-belief things cannot be changed, incompetence and lack of imagination, unmotivated/absentee executives, buck-passing delays, passive, impersonal, rigid, little scanning of the environment among managers, absence of plans, goals and strategies
 * Neurotic Style-dramatic, histrionic, narcissistic
 * Culture-charismatic
 * Organization-dramatic
 * Examples-dependent subordinates who idealize the leader, hold him/her infallible, never question him/her, enthusiastic adherence to beliefs/goals, lack of independent minded leadership, extremely centralized, too informal, too constrained in bottom-up communication, intuitive/impulsive/risky decision making, expansionistic and acquisitions oriented in strategy
 * Neurotic Style-compulsive
 * Culture-bureaucratic
 * Organizations-compulsive
 * Examples-organizations centers around control, slavish adherence to archaic set of standards and risk averse, hierarchial, rigid, rule-oriented, inwardly focused, formalized and centralized, little analysis of the environment
 * Neurotic Style-detached
 * Culture-politicized
 * Organizations-schizoid
 * Examples-leadership vacuum, second tier of leaders jockeying for power and position, coordination and cooperation will be neglected, fragmented, political-not rational, information systems as power, concerted and adaptive change less possible, muddling through

Conclusion-Pure constellations were described, but reality is much more complicated. There are hybrids of the above types in most cases. Although the leader impacts the organizations, the reverse can be true. A dysfunctional organization can cause a leader to become absorbed into the dysfunction individually. Advantages of this typology: 1) the review of pure constellations in this article avoided the one variable at a time approach by searching for common types and the cultural factors that underlie the types; 2) treats personality in a global way; 3) gets at the root of strategic, cultural and structural problems; 4) assignment of firms to a type can help analysts get to the root of the underlying problem. Pessimistic outcome-displays resistance to change in organizations.

<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">//Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership.// (Gardner): Andrea K. McClain
====<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Preface: Gardner defines a leader as "an individual...who significantly affects the thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors of a significant number of individuals." He states that most leaders are direct leaders but goes on to explain that indirect leadership will be examined in his book as well. He defines indirect leadership (when "individuals exert impact through the works they create"). He then states that "leaders fashion stories," and continues to refer to storytelling throughout the book: "When one thinks of the leader as a storyteller, whose stories must wrestle with those that are already operative in the minds of an audience, one obtains a powerful way of conceptualizing the work of leading." ==== ====<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Gardner refers to his book, //The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think, and How Schools Should Teach//, and references his theory that by age 5, children have an "unschooled mind" and make up their own, often inaccurate, theories. He goes on to state that "most adults continue to theorize much as they did when they were young children." This will be important later in the book, when he distinguishes between indirect leaders and direct leaders. Indirect leaders are often experts in a field, such as science, who lead other experts (Einstein) and may have an impact on history through their discoveries (using his theories for the Manhattan Project). However, direct leaders are dealing with the public, not with experts, and share their message differently with their audience. ==== ====<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">Gardner goes on to hint at the cognitive perspective of this work: "Much of what is beneficent in the world has been inspired by farsighted leaders, even as many of the horrors of the world have been wrought be leaders who, while perhaps equally gifted, have used their powers destructively. I believe that my study can help explain what leadership entails, from a psychological perspective, and why skilled, constructive leadership has not proved easy to come by in the closing years of the twentieth century." ==== ====<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">This book is divided into part I (in which he lays out a framework for leadership), part II (case studies of domain-specific and national leaders), and part III ("leadership that looks forward"). In Chapter 1, Gardner begins with the contrast of the Eureka Summit vs. Einstein. In 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in Tehran (Eureka Summit) to wrestle with military and diplomatic issues relating to the state of the Alliance. Meanwhile, Einstein is living quietly in Princeton. Einstein, in 1939, wrote to Roosevelt to share "the possibility that extremely powerful bombs might be constructed if one could set off nuclear chain reactrions in a mass of uranium." In 1943, the atomic bomb project in Los Alamos, NM was well on its way. This would have been impossible without Einstein's research. Gardner is beginning to make us wonder if indirect leadership is just as crucial as direct leadership, and what leaders have in common. He states on pages 5-6: "In this book, I argue that we can understand the achievements of such figures as Churchill and Einstein better if, first, we recognize the ways in which they were similar and, second and more importantly, we survey strategic intermediate points between these such prototypical figures. To anticipate my argument very briefly, I see both Churchill and Einstein as leaders - as individuals who significantly influence the thoughts, behaviors, and/or feelings of others. Churchill exerted his influence in a direct way, through the stories he communicated to various audiences; hence, I term him a //direct// leader. Einstein exerted his influence in an indirect way, through the ideas he developed and the ways that those ideas were captured in some kind of a theory or treatise; hence, he qualifies as an //indirect// leader.Einstein and Churchill mark two ends of a continuum that denotes the capacity of a person (or a group of persons) to //influence// other people....Who ultimately had the greater influence - the three most powerful men of their time or a solitary thinker armed with only a succinct physics equation?" ==== ====Gardner identifies the eleven leaders studied in this book: Margaret Mead, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Robert Maynard Hutchins, Alfred P. Sloan, George C. Marshall, Pope John XXIII, Eleanor Roosevelt, Martin Luther King, Jr., Margaret Thatcher, Jean Monnet, and Mahatma Gandhi. Gardner then reiterates his definition of a leader: "//persons who, by word and/or personal example, markedly influence the behaviors, thoughts, and/or feelings of a significant number of their fellow human beings// (here termed //followers// or //audience members//). The leaders’ voices affected their worlds, and ultimately, our worlds" (pp 8-9). Gardner reminds us that some of the indirect leaders began their work within the academic realm, but their impact obviously extended beyond their initial sphere of influence. He also mentions the idea of constituencies – Eleanor Roosevelt addressed women, whereas Thatcher addressed an entire nation, and a //visionary// leader such as Gandhi impacted the entire world.==== ====Gardner revisits the idea of storytelling on page 9: “Leaders achieve their effectiveness chiefly through the stories they relate.” He goes on to say that “in addition to communicating stories, leaders //embody// those stories.” He adds that the personal lives of indirect leaders aren’t as relevant to the audience as the personal lives of direct leaders. In other words, Einstein’s personal live with his wives is not important to his impact, but the Pope’s personal life needs to be consistent with Catholic values. One key factor about indirect leaders is that their //approach// may have as much of a legacy as their discoveries. Referring to Einstein’s approach, Gardner states on page 10: “Just as his successors have been influenced by the conclusions that he drew, they have also been affected by the ways that he posed questions and the ways that he formulated, approached, and solved problems.”==== ====Gardner then defines leaders in terms of how innovative they were. An //ordinary// leader is an effective leader who continues the “traditional story” of his group. Gardner will not be studying any ordinary leaders. An //innovative// leader “takes a story that has been latent in the population, or among members of his or her chosen domain, and brings new attention or a fresh twist to that story” (p. 10). Gardner mentions Reagan, but does not give an example. (This personally makes me think of Reagan urging Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall – obviously, reuniting Germany had been on many peoples’ minds for decades, and the world was ready for the overall dissolution of the Soviet Union’s hegemony, but Reagan helped focus world attention on the situation. ) Gardner states that there are very few visionary leaders, people who “create a new story” (p. 11). Great religious figures qualify and he also mentions Gandhi and Monnet.==== ====Gardner reiterates that indirect leaders are often dealing with an already sophisticated audience (a scientist sharing a message with fellow scientists), or “communicating with experts.” He goes on to say that leaders who are reorienting a broader constituency have to relay the message to laymen, who “bring an ordinary, relatively undisciplined frame of mind to their audience membership” (p. 12). Gardner states that many of the national leaders he studies had strong persuasive powers and were part of democratic societies. He calls them //leaders by choice//. He states that they may have enjoyed power, but they were motivated by a desire to change society, rather than by the desire for more personal power.==== ====Gardner returns to the idea of the story as being central to leadership: “What links the eleven individuals….is the fact that they arrived at a story that worked for them, and ultimately, for others as well. They told stories…about themselves and their groups, about where they were coming from and where they were headed, about what was to be feared, struggled against, and dreamed about. My analysis of leadership comes to focus, therefore, on the stories conveyed by representative leaders” (p. 14). Gardner states that leaders and followers are on a journey together. He also states: “Leaders and audiences traffic in many stories, but the most basic story has to do with issues of identity” (p. 14).==== ====Finally, Gardner lays out his cognitive approach to leadership. Since leadership occurs within the human mind of the leader and audience, we will understand leadership better when we understand the human mind better. He reminds the reader that a cognitive approach is very different to a behaviorist or psychoanalytic approach: “…cognitive psychologists examine how ideas (or thoughts or images or mental representations) develop and how they are stored, accessed, combined, remembered, and…rearranged or distorted by the operations of the human mental apparatus” (pp 15-16).==== ====Before sharing the perspective that this cognitive approach is different than approaches that study //power//, the //audience//, the leader’s //personality//, or //policies//, Gardner states: “ …a cognitively oriented scientist is likely to ask such questions as, What are the ideas (or stories) of the leader? How have they developed? How are they communicated, understood, and misunderstood? How do they interact with other stories, especially competing counterstories, that have already drenched the consciousness of audience members? How do key ideas (or stories) affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other individuals? (p. 16)==== ====On pages 18-19, Gardner outlines his plan for each chapter. He then discusses his method. He used both biographies and autobiographies. He shares that in the next two chapters, he will introduce “a set of distinctions that figure in a cognitive approach to leadership: such factors as direct/indirect forms of leadership, leadership within and across domains, inclusionary/exclusionary kinds of stories, identity stories, the embodiment of stories, and resistances and counterstories” (p. 21).==== Chapter 2 – Human Development and Leadership In this chapter, Gardner asks: “What sort of mind is needed to gain nurturance from at least certain kinds of stories told by certain kinds of people? I see at least four principal factors…” (p. 22). He goes on to explain that the first factor is our //primate heritage –// we are from a species that has //clear dominance relationships// among its members as well as a //proclivity to imitate.// He goes on to state that even preschoolers demonstrate dominance processes. He continues: “More generally, as primates, we expect a leadership/followership social structure” (p. 23). Another factor is //early socialization of human children (//p. 24//).// Childhood relationships with adult caretakers impact how they will react to authority later. This section also mentions the importance of having a sense of self, a sense that one is a separate entity (p. 24) as well as an //appreciation of how one is similar to certain other individuals//. Gardner states: “Two parallel social processes are at work during the early years. The child develops an increasingly complex and differentiated sense of self as an individual; and the child comes to feel an affinity to older individuals in particular, and to one or more social groups in general “(p. 25). Gardner returns to the topic of the unschooled, five year old mind, someone “who, amazingly enough, already possesses the basic ingredients necessary for entering into a leader-follower (or a peer-peer) relationship” (p. 25). Gardner discusses Freud’s and Piaget’s thoughts about child development – Freud thought stages were cumulative and you could always access your younger emotions/thoughts, whereas Piaget though that once you were in an advanced cognitive state, you would not be able to retain earlier states. Gardner thinks both are sort of right – you can access your younger self/emotions in some ways, but once you learn some facts, you aren’t going to unlearn them. He goes on: “But these two explorers of the child’s mind failed to account adequately for another crucial set of phenomena….for example, children come to think that heavier objects fall more rapidly than lighter objects…Where Piaget fell short was in his assumption that such misconceptions would necessarily dissolve….Indeed, even students who have taken courses in the formal disciplines typically continue to believe – contrary to fact and contrary to teaching – that an object’s mass determines its acceleration…Only the physicists, biologists, and social analysts in our midst are apparently able to relinquish completely the astonishingly strong and enduring theories of early childhood” (p. 27). Gardner discusses the background knowledge/experiences children have (going to the store or restaurant, going to a birthday party), describing them as “scripts” or “scenarios.” He adds: “….early scripts, stereotypes, and scenarios prove surprisingly impervious to change” (p. 28). In that case, “one may say that the five year old has already made up his or her mind” (p. 28). Gardner discusses that this is not an issue in some indirect or direct leadership situations, such as among scientists or diplomats. “The case is completely different, however, for individuals who presume to provide leadership across domains. Those who address a more broad-based institution like the church or a large and heterogeneous group like the inhabitants of a nation must at least begin by assuming that most of their audience members have a well-stocked five year old mind”(p. 28). Another factor related to leadership is //the attainment of expertise in various domains//. Since we are no longer a preliterate, apprentice-based society, “…most cultures also feature a host of domains that are neither universally nor culturally mandated” (p. 29). So when we enter into a chosen profession, we become experts in that field and have “transcended the limits of the five year old mind” (p. 30). Gardner gives us the caveat: “However, in areas where he is not expert, or in areas where he is considered as part of a heterogeneous and largely unschooled group…., he is likely to encounter (and to apprehend) messages that are much simpler. Most individuals today deal daily with two contrasting presentations: sophisticated indirect leadership in their domains of accomplishment; and relatively “unschooled” messages from direct leaders of large-scale institutions” (p. 30). Gardner discusses that young children demonstrate early promise in terms of specific talents, such as in a sport or music, or by their intelligence, but it’s hard to spot the social expertise that is key to leadership. He goes on to look at the antecedents of leading and make some connections between famous leaders, which include: losing a father at an early age, having contrasting relationships with parents (getting along well with one, negatively with another), risk taking, and a motive to gain power. There’s a Winston Churchill quote: Famous men are usually the product of an unhappy childhood (p. 33). Gardner also states: “Both the indirect and the direct leaders I studied seem from an early age to have stood apart from their contemporaries: (p.33). Gardner indicates that linguistic intelligence and personal intelligence are key to leadership. Gardner also discusses the antecedents of following, including the idea that followers are “searching for the very authority figure that the leader has spurned” (p. 34). Children look for “…the overt features of individuals: size, strength, physical attractiveness, and control of desired resources. By adolescence, additional features become important: the power of the individual’s ideas (or stories), their coherence, and their appropriateness to a particular historical moment…..an ensemble of personal characteristics may enhance the leader’s status: those leaders who exhibit charisma, spirituality, and an enigmatic blend of ordinariness and extraordinariness often appeal to others ” (p.35). Gardner goes on to state that the developed, or full-blown, leader can be identified with key factors, such as having //a tie to the community or audience//, a //certain rhythm of life// (isolation from and immersion to crowd), an //evident relationship between stories and embodiment//, and the //centrality of choice// (the leaders are chosen freely, not dictators). Gardner discusses symbols and communication: we use language, gestures, numeracy, literacy, music, and various forms of communication as humans. He states: “…after the first five years of life, cognitive development becomes equivalent to symbolic development. Moreover, this process of ever-heightened symbol use continues unabated when the child enters school or other educational milieus. In any modern society, a primary burden of schools is to teach second-order symbol systems – those written notations that themselves refer to the first-order symbol systems, like spoken language and number systems” (pp. 38-39). This is part of our linguistic intelligence. It can look different – Einstein and Picasso can be geniuses at formulae and artwork. Not every leader has to be verbally gifted, but their gift will involve some kind of symbol mastery. Visual presentation is also important (Churchill flashing the V for victory embodies his story). Gardner sums the chapter up: “In this chapter, I have reviewed those facets of human development that seem most germane to an understanding of leadership: humans’ primate heritage; the early emergence of a sense of self and others; the development in early childhood of powerful theories or “scripts” about the world; the marks of emerging expertise in the domains valued in one’s society; and the specific ensemble of traits that may mark the emerging leader and the emerging follower. We may think of these elements as basic ingredients out of which a comprehensive model of leadership can be constructed” (p. 40).

__<span style="font-family: 'Palatino Linotype','Book Antiqua',Palatino,serif;">REVISED Weekend 3 __

**Yukl, G. “Strategic Leadership by Executives” (Kimberly)**
How much infludence do executives really have on org. performance?
 * External determinants-Factors beyond leader’s control
 * Economic conditions
 * Market conditions
 * Government policies
 * Technological changes
 * Limited discretion-Inherited organizations with strengths/weaknesses; only political coalitions can make real changes
 * Biased attributions-Exaggerate leader’s influence to explain complex events; leaders manage impressions

i. Identify relevant info to gather ii. Use multiple sources of relevant information iii. Learn what clients & customers need and want iv. Learn about the products & activities of competitors v. Relate environmental information to strategic plans i. Determine long-term objectives and priorities ii. Assess current strengths & weaknesses iii. Identify core competencies iv. Evaluate the need for a major change strategy v. Identify promising strategies vi. Evaluate the likely outcomes of a strategy vii. Involve other executives in selecting a strategy
 * 1) Constraints on executive discretion
 * 2) Internal constraints: Who CEO answers to and the power they have; financial; org culture; internal factions, coalitions
 * 3) External constraints: industry growth, demand, stakeholders, differentiation, competition, political-legal, stability/crisis
 * 4) Constraints & executive attributes: degree and type of constraints determines type of leader attracted to position
 * 5) Attributions about chief executives
 * 6) Determinations of attributions: visibility, results of the action taken
 * 7) Attributions and executive discretion: past actions->perceptions of leader competence->amount of discretion given to leader
 * 8) Impression management by executives: successes announced and celebrated; failures suppressed/downplayed
 * 9) Research on Effects of Leadership Succession: Succession research=limited/problematic; indicates top level leaders can have big impact on org. performance; don’t know how or predict how much effect a particular leader will have
 * 10) Evolutionary change and strategic leadership: reorientation in response to shift in environment (change strategy, structure, processes, people) are radical change followed by long periods of convergence, or slow incremental changes—CEO has largest effect during reorientation
 * 11) Political power and strategic leadership: amount of change depends on power struggles between factions in an org.; executives control release of info, biases
 * 12) Executive tenure and strategic leadership: major reorientations seldom initiated by CEOs in office multiple years; CEO becomes increasingly committed to successful initial strategies
 * 13) Executive teams: various structures and roles, differences in the amount of leadership actually shared among members of team
 * 14) Political advantages of executive teams: better decisions as a group, compensate for others’ weaknesses, leader succession
 * 15) Executive teams and organizational effectiveness: depend on org. context, environment, CEO’s management style, diversity/background/perspective benefits team
 * 16) Competing values in strategic leadership: task vs. people; allocate now or invest for future; efficiency vs. flexibility; internal vs. external concerns; effectiveness will be based on balance
 * 17) Monitoring the environment: customers, clients, suppliers, vendors, competitors, market trends, economic conditions, gov. policies, tech. developments
 * 18) Guidelines for external monitoring
 * 1) Formulating strategy: how to compete in the marketplace and still remain profitable
 * 2) Guidelines for formulating strategy